Computer Architecture

• Number systems: binary, hexadecimal, two's complement, IEEE 754 floating point
• Logic gates: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, XOR, multiplexers, adders
• CPU architecture: ALU, registers, program counter, instruction cycle (fetch-decode-execute)
• Instruction set architectures: CISC vs RISC, x86, ARM, RISC-V
• Pipelining: stages, hazards (data, control, structural), forwarding, branch prediction
• Memory hierarchy: registers → L1/L2/L3 cache → RAM → disk, cache associativity, cache coherence
• Virtual memory: page tables, TLB, page faults, address translation
• Bus architecture, I/O, interrupts, DMA